History and Theoretical Foundation

Martin, F. (2000, 1 December) "To Mindstorms and Beyond: Evolution of a Construction Kit for Magical Machines." [Digital video recording.] Colloquium #2 for ArsDigita University . Retrieved from http://aduni.org/colloquia/martin/  on 9/27/2006

In this 90 minute lecture, Fred Martin, the main creative force behind the Lego RCX (or ‘brain’), discusses the history of this project and the research problems the team was attempting to address. Along with many ‘inside’ stories of the events surrounding the invention of the robotics system and subsequent purchase by the Lego corporation, Martin provides examples of successful uses of early prototypes in New England classrooms.

Martin, F., Mikhak, B., Resnick, M. Silverman, B. and Berg, R. (2000) To Mindstorms and Beyond: Evolution of a Construction Kit for Magical Machines. Cambridge , MA : MIT Media Lab. Retrieved from http://www.cs.uml.edu/~fredm//papers/magical-machines.pdf on 10/5/2006

This is the paper from which the videotaped talk above (Martin, 2000) gets its name. A more organized and scholarly description of the ideas and prototypes which led to the development of the Lego RCX, as well as a look ahead at what the MIT Media Lab team is developing along the same lines.

Papert, S. (1980) Mindstorms: Children, Computers and Powerful Ideas (Second Edition, 1993). New York : Basic Books

            Seymour Papert is a protégé of the famed child psychologist Jean Piaget, and a co-founder of the Media Lab at MIT. When personal computers first became affordable, Papert saw the new machines as a means to help children learn critical thinking schools in a way that was not previously possible. He also believed that the process of learning to speak the language of computers would change the way children learned in other areas. Papert invented the computer language LOGO to test some of his theories. LOGO was the original programming language for the Lego RCX (the robotics ‘brain’) and the RCX was invented at the Media Lab under Papert’s direction. This book provides an important history of and introduction to the theories by which the Lego Robotics system was created.

Papert, S. (1993) The Children’s Machine: Rethinking School in the Age of the Computer. New York : Basic Books.

            Over a decade after writing Mindstorms, Papert provides a critique of the use of computers in schools, providing harsh criticism along with stories of individual innovation and success. Papert updates his vision for the integration of technology in schools, providing a important context for the continued use of the Lego Robotics system in educational settings.
  

Papert, S. (c. 1999) Ghost in the Machine: Seymour Papert on How Computers Fundamentally Change the Way Kids Learn. Posted on ZineZone.com in 1999, since removed. Provided by instructor William LaPlant to the students of Emergent Technology and Learning Environments at Bridgewater State College, September 2006.

            Papert discusses his opinions on technology, teaching and learning.

Rieber, L. (2004) Microworlds. Handbook of Research on Educational and Communications Technology, David Jonassen, ed. Mahwah , NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

This chapter discusses the use of LOGO and related languages to create simulations of natural phenomena, such as the growth of an ant colony or the flow of rush hour traffic past a constriction in the road. Papert promoted the use of type of simulation as a learning exercise, where students could control different variables (availability of food, cars per hour, etc.) and see the results over time. The article discusses the history and theoretical background of the use of microworlds in educational settings. Papert is referenced frequently, since he originally proposed the idea in his book, The Computer In School: Tutor, Tool, Tutee (1980)

Resnick, M. and Silverman, B. (2005) Some Reflections on Designing Construction Kits for Kids Retrieved from http://web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/IDC-2005.pdf October 30, 2006  

Mitchell Resnick was another member of the team that developed the original Lego RCX. In this paper the authors discuss their 10 guiding principles behind designing construction sets for kids, including, "Make it as Simple as Possible - and Maybe Even Simpler" and "Invent Things That You Would Want to Use Yourself".

Application of Lego Robotics in the Classroom

Järvinen, E (1998)  The Lego/Logo Learning Environment in Technology Education: An Experiment in a Finnish Context. Journal of Technology Education,  9:2

            In making the case for a constructivist educational program Jarvinen explores the problem-solving behavior of students and teachers in a Finnish school. The groups use the Lego/LOGO system, a predecessor to the Lego RCX system. This study, completed within the last 10 years, helps provide a more current context for the use of Lego and Logo in classrooms. Much of the literature written about LOGO was done in the 1980s, and focuses on the Apple II line of personal computers.

Martin, F., Butler , D., and Gleason, W. (2000, February) Empowering Minds by Taking Control: Developing Teachers’ Technological Fluency with LEGO Mindstorms Prepared for the Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education conference, See http://www.aace.org/ Retrieved from http://empoweringminds.spd.dcu.ie/documents/serve-version?id=23 October 5, 2006

As part of the Empowering Minds project (see below), a team including Fred Martin, one of the inventors of the Lego RCX, helped teachers learn how to use the Lego Mindstorms robotics system to achieve pedagogical goals which were important to them.
  

Martin, F., Butler , D., and Gleason, W. (2000, October) Design, Story-Telling, and Robots in Irish Primary Education. Submitted to the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics conference, Nashville , Tennessee http://www.smc2000.org/. Retrieved from http://www.cs.uml.edu/~fredm//papers/martin-smc2000.pdf on 10/5/2006.

            Fred Martin and his associates, in collaboration with St. Patrick’s College in Ireland , conducted a research program “Empowering Minds”. Their aim was to introduce the Lego robotics system called Mindstorms into Irish primary schools. In a companion paper presented at the separate conference (see below), the team describes how they provided training and support for the primary school teachers to help make this program a success. This is an excellent example of how Lego robotics can be used as a learning tool in schools.

Mauch, E. (2001, March/April) Using Technological Innovation to Improve the Problem-Solving Skills of Middle School Students. Clearing House, 74:4, 211-214

            This scholarly article falls is not quite a formal research study, but does provide a systematic description and analysis of a Lego robotics unit taught to middle school students.

Moore , Virgina (1999, November) Robotics. Technology Teacher, 59:3, 17-23

            This article for using Lego robotics and similar tools in upper elementary classrooms. The author provides a solid foundation for a teacher new to the subject, including a section on interdisciplinary connections and assessment.

Current Trends and Related Information

DeMeis, R (1998, September 7) LEGOs bring robotics to the classroom. Design News, 54:17, p58-60,

            This short article discusses an early version of the Lego robotic system, Lego Dacta, along with pictures and diagrams of the more current Mindstorms and Robolab software.
  

McComb, Gordon (2000, April) Using `Not Quite C' to Program LEGO Mindstorms. By: McComb, Gordon. Poptronics,1:4, p52-56

            The Lego Mindstorms kit comes with a program that provides students with a graphical way to create complex instructions for the RCX. Many computer teachers and enthusiasts look for a way to create programs for the RCX in more common, procedural programming languages such as C and Basic. This article describes one product called “Not Quite C” that is used in place of the Mindstorms graphical programming interface.

Munro, J.(2003, March 11)Build a Better Robot. PC Magazine, 22:4,148 – 150

            A brief overview of the Lego Mindstorms system and other resources for home robotics construction.

Turner, D. (2006, July) Lego Mindstorms NXT. Technology Review, 109:3, 22-23

            A review of the newest version of the Lego robotics kit.

Unknown, (2006) FRC Handbook, Retrieved from http://www.usfirst.org/robotics/2007/FRC_Handbook-Final.pdf

            This is the handbook for Lego robotic competitions. Middle school and high school teams compete in pre-defined challenges with Lego robots built from identical kits.

Additional References

Jonassen, D. (2006) Modeling with Technology: Mindtools for Conceptual Change (Third Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

Carbonaro, M., Rex, M., Chambers, J. (2004) Using LEGO Robotics in a Project-Based Learning Environment. Retrieved from http://imej.wfu.edu/articles/2004/1/02/index.asp on November 1, 2006

Cuban, L. (2001) So Much High-Tech Money Invested, So Little Use: How Come? Retrieved on October 29, 2006 from http://www.edtechnot.com/notarticle1201.html

Jonassen, D. (2006) Modeling with Technology: Mindtools for Conceptual Change (Third Edition). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Education.

The LEGO Group, (2006) LEGO Company Profle. Retrieved from  http://www.lego.com/info/pdf/LEGO_company_profile_UK.pdf on November 30, 2006

Resnick, M., Martin, F., Sargent, R. and Silverman, B. (1996) Programmable Bricks: Toys to Think With. IBM Systems Journal, 35:3 & 4, 43

Resnick, M. and Ocko, S. (1998) LEGO/Logo: Learning Through and About Design Retrieved from http://llk.media.mit.edu/papers/ll.html on November 30, 2006  

Resnick, M. and Silverman, B. (2005) Some Reflections on Designing Construction Kits for Kids Retrieved from http://web.media.mit.edu/~mres/papers/IDC-2005.pdf October 30, 2006